Here's a lovely-to-look-at period piece from a master of Italian verismo. The storyline for the romantic element is not credible and involves two equally despicable critters, but its all done up in dramatic, operatic style.

Historical Background: Visconti acquired his taste for grand spectacle and melodrama from his experience early in life working in theater and opera productions. He initially abandoned such proclivities when he turned to making films. In fact, his first film, Ossessione (1942) was something of a film noir as well as a harbinger of Italian Neo-realism. After the war, Visconti continued in the Neo-realist view with La Terra Trema (1947). Despite his Marxist sympathies, Visconti was certainly not part of the proletariat, having been born into an aristocratic family of Milan. His natural affinity for high culture was not to be long suppressed, as we observe in Senso (1954). Senso is set in the Italy of the Risorgimento and relates to the activities of Italian partisans in Austrian-controlled Venice of 1866.

Risorgimento was the movement in Italy, from 1815 to 1871, for unification of Italy as a single county, free of foreign influence. Italy had not existed as a unified entity since the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Between 1500 and 1800, Italy consisted of a number of small city states, totally dominated by foreign powers, mainly Austria, France and the papacy. Napoleon I expelled the Austrians from Italy and established new republics, giving the Italians a taste of self-rule that they would not soon forget when the old order was reestablished after Napoleon's defeat in 1814. In northeastern Italy, several small states, including Lombardy and Venetia, were established under dukes loyal to the Austrian rulers. The Kingdom of Sardinia was reestablished under the royal House of Savoy. Sicily and the southern half of the Italian peninsula became known as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, ruled by the Bourbons. Rome and central Italy were reestablished as the Papal States under the authority of the Vatican.

Inspired by such writers and poets as Antonio Muratori, Alessandro Manzoni, and Ugo Foscolo, Risorgimento took root. Uprisings led by a secret revolutionary society called the Carbonari occurred in the Two Sicilies in 1820, Sardinia in 1821, and the Papal States in 1831. Risorgimento was mainly a movement within the aristocracy and middle class, since economic and land reforms were not really a part of the package and the peasants had little to gain either way. In 1848, revolts broke out all over France, Austria, the German states, and in the Italian city-states. The King of Sardinia, Charles Albert, sided with the rebels, granting his people a constitution. Republics were soon declared in Naples, Venetia, Lombardy, Tuscany and Rome. Garibaldi and his red shirts fought for the republic in Rome headed by Giuseppe Mazzini. When the Austrians moved in to suppress the republics, Charles Albert led a force against the Austrians, but was defeated at the first Battle of Custoza in 1848. French troops also intervened, helping the Pope reestablish Papal authority over Rome. Charles Albert was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II.

It now became clear to the leadership of the Risorgimento that the Italian fight for freedom and independence could not be won without first ridding the country of Austrian control. The Kingdom of Sardinia alone remained as a symbol of independent Italy and its tricolor flag became the rallying emblem of Italian patriots throughout the peninsula. The Prime Minister of Sardinia, Count Cavour, realized that Sardinia could not be successful against Austria without foreign support and set out to win French support and British sympathy. By a program of social reforms and trade agreements, Cavour succeeded in establishing an alliance with Napoleon III of France.

As a result, war broke out in 1859. Austria attacked the Republic of Sardinia, but French and Sardinian troops repelled the Austrian force at Magenta. The war proved costly, however, and France soon signed an armistice with Austria, by which the Sardinians gained Lombardy but not the much-coveted Venetia. In 1860, a thousand red shirt volunteers, led by Garibaldi, invaded and conquered the Two Sicilies on behalf of the Risorgimento. All that remained in foreign hands after 1860 were Venetia and the Papal States. The Italians, in a national referendum, voted overwhelmingly for the formation of a Kingdom of Italy.

Meanwhile, to the north of Austria, a similar unification movement was in progress in the German states, led by Prussia. The Austrio-Prussian War broke out in 1866 – a war that would reshape Europe and reverberate in world history well into the 20th century. Prussia was an emerging power and Austria the existing dominant influence in central Europe. The Prussian military, organized largely on the basis of merit, was equipped with the latest weapons and technology. The Austrian army, by contrast, had been weakened by political appointments and favoritism and had grown complacent in their assumption of superiority. Using a brilliant new tactic of envelopment, the Prussian army drove the Austrians southward. The Italians recognized an opportunity to rid themselves of their old enemy and struck an alliance with the Prussians. The Italian forces, however, were even more antiquated and poorly prepared than the Austrian army. The decisive battle in the south took place at Custoza in 1866, where the Austrians defeated the Italian forces, with superior firepower, though not especially convincingly. This is the battle depicted in Senso. After the war, Italy gained Venetia as payment for its support for Prussia. Rome and the Papal States were later added to the Republic of Italy in 1870, when France withdrew its protection during a war with Prussia. For two other delightful film relating to the Italian freedom fight, check out The Horseman on the Roof and The Leopard.

The Story: The film opens on a performance of the great Verdi opera Il Trovatore at Venice's fabled La Fenice Opera House. The occupying Austrian officers and soldiers sit in the orchestra seats, while the local Italians are spread through the balconies and private boxes. At the end of Act I, during the applause, shouts of derision and political leaflets come raining down on the Austrians from above: "Long live Italy!" During the ensuing melee, one of the Italian patriots, the Marquis Roberto Ussoni (Massimo Girotti), challenges a young Austrian officer, Lt. Franz Mahler (Farley Granger), to a dual.

High up in one of the private boxes, Count Serpieri (Heinz Moog) and Countess Livia Serpieri (Alida Valli) closely observe the events below. They are not of the same mind, however. The elderly Count holds an official position under the Austrian authority and believes in peaceful coexistence. The young Countess Livia is an ardent patriot and Roberto is her distant cousin. The Countess fears for her cousin, all the more so because he is an important leader in the effort to free Venice from Austrian dominance. She decides to intervene on his behalf as a kind of peacemaker.

Livia asks a senior Austrian officer to introduce her to the Lieutenant who was involved in the altercation. During the second act of Il Trovatore, she uses her feminine charms to encourage Lt. Mahler to refuse the challenge. He assures her that he has no intention of dueling with Marquis Ussoni, who he expects to be soon in handcuffs. Livia rushes off to forewarn her cousin, but, as she mulls over the situation, she suddenly realizes that she is as much concerned about the Austrian Lieutenant as her cousin. Roberto is arrested, but gets off with a one-year exile, along with a number of his associates.

Livia finds herself seeking out Lt. Mahler. They spend time walking about Venice together. He recites verse to her and flatters her vanity. He is a master seducer and apparently well practiced at it. Soon, she is no longer mistress of her feelings. They meet for trysts in a rented room. She probably believes her own words when she insists that there are no strings attached: "I'll get up, open the window, and let your heart fly away, free as a butterfly." In reality, she becomes increasingly desperate for his attentions and sacrifices her dignity by chasing after him. He begins to avoid her.

When word comes that Prussia has occupied Holstein, war between Italy and Austria becomes virtually inevitable as well. The Count, Countess, and their household must depart Venice to take up residence at their villa in Aldeno. The Countess is still consumed by her passion for Franz. Her stay at the villa reminds her of convalescing after a violent illness when she was a child. Surprisingly, Franz shows up on her balcony, one evening. She is able to hide him in her room and in the attic with the aid of her maid, Laura (Rina Morelli). Livia, in her love-fevered simplicity, believes he has braved all manner of dangers to come to her out of intense love. He has a more mundane and sinister purpose. He wants a large sum of money in order to bribe a physician into saying that he is unfit for service. Her mind is so clouded with ardent desire for him that he is easily able to manipulate her into appearing to think up the idea herself. She gives him 2000 florin from monies that were entrusted to her by her cousin to support the Italian patriots.

He departs, obtains his medical exemption, and sets himself up in a life of dissipation in a distant city, living off the Countess's money. He writes, urging her to stay put, since travel would be too dangerous. She is so overwhelmed with desire for him, however, that she sets out to rejoin him, expecting they will then live together in happiness forever. Instead, she finds him drunk, shacked up with Clara (Marcela Mariani), and in no mood to see her at all. He mocks and derides her, pointing out that Clara is young and beautiful and gets paid for her services, while the Countess is old and pays him. The Countess is devastated. Nothing remains for her but revenge.

Themes: I suppose that the theme is something like hell hath no fury like a woman scorned. I am left wondering what kind of fury soldiers have when they discover that the funds to support their cause have been given away by a well-heeled countess to a ne'er-do-well lover who is also an enemy soldier.

Generally, when Italian filmmakers use opera as a background element for a film, you can bet that there's some parallel at work between the story of the opera and the story of the film. In Il Trovatore, Azucena, the daughter of a gypsy who was burned at the stake, takes her revenge by raising as her own Manrico, the kidnapped younger son of the Count who was responsible for her mother's death. Manrico has grown up to become a troubadour as well as the leader of a rebel force at war with the current Count di Luna. Manrico and Count di Luna are brothers, though neither knows it. They are also rival suitors for Leonora, who prefers Manrico to the powerful Count. Long story short, Azucena tricks the Count into unwitting fratricide, informing him about Manrico's identity after the fact, thus taking her revenge. Leonora also dies, poisoning herself after a botched attempt to save her lover, Manrico. What the opera and the film's story have in common is a wrongdoer (the older Count and Lt. Mahler) and a person consumed by thirst for vengeance (Azucena and Countess Livia). Beyond that limited parallel, the two stories differ in substantial ways. Countess Livia came by her awareness of being wronged and her desire for vengeance very late in the film's story, whereas Azucena's entire life had revolved around her torment over her mother's death and her obsession with revenge. Il Trovatore is a great operatic story, providing us with a full range of noble, ambivalent, and evil characters. Manrico and Leonora provide two with whom we can identify, causing us to feel the full tragedy of their deaths. By contrast, there are only two significant characters in Senso, and neither is remotely deserving of sympathy.

Production Values: There's a lot to like about this film, except, unfortunately, the two main characters and the story. The sets and costumes are utterly stunning and the cinematography lush and varied. The music couldn't be any more appropriate or pleasing, especially for me, since Il Trovatore is among my top-five favorite operas. Anton Bruckner's Seventh Symphony is also heard repeatedly in the background, providing, I suppose, the Austrian counterpoint to the Italian opera. The setting of the film amidst a grand time in Italian history is another plus. The depiction of the Battle of Custoza, near the end of the film, was quite impressive – not one of the top half-dozen battle scenes I've seen on film, but not much below them. I understand that Italian censors shortened the battle segment, so perhaps a fuller version will be available some day through a restoration project. The cinematography emphasizes rust reds and browns. The color is poorly saturated, whether by intent or fading prints I cannot say. You may want to boost up the color setting on your television for this film.

I've just one complaint about this film, but it's a major one. So major, in fact, that this film just doesn't work for me. I found it all rather painful to watch. I have this thing about needing at least one of the main characters to have some positive qualities. Even a good film noir typically gives you a gangster who has some likable characteristics, even if you know from the outset that his flaws are bound to lead him to tragedy. Clearly, Lt. Franz Mahler is a low-life – a confidence man, basically, who toys with the hearts of ladies, exploits them and then spurns them. He's also a gambler and a coward and deserter. Normally, I might enjoy seeing a man of this kind come to no good end, but it's hard to relish revenge when the revenge taker is no better than the one getting his comeuppance.

Countess Livia betrays her own ideals as a self-described Italian patriot, loves a man who lacks character merely because he flatters her with verse and attention, cheats on her husband, risks the lives of her cousin and his comrades in arms by giving away money raised for support of the troops, throws herself disgracefully on a supposedly lover whose true feelings are anything but certain, helps him evade his duty through bribery, and, finally, when spurned by him, turns informer, thereby bringing about his execution. Franz at least made no pretense to himself of being anything other than a cad and a coward. The Countess, while claiming both values and virtue, betrayed all that she supposedly held dear. If she had any true insight into her own character, she should have ended her own life, rather than worrying about taking revenge on Mahler.

There's occasional use of narration in this film, and it's provided in the voice of Countess Livia, expounding on her feelings and actions. There's an inherent flaw in using her as narrator. In her interactions with Franz, she is supposedly oblivious to the dishonesty of his professions of love but we, as viewers, can readily see the twinkle in his eye and devious looks indicating that he is merely a con artist. If she is the one telling the story, how can she both depict his dishonesty and not be aware of it? Another logical flaw in the story is that Franz is presented as a seasoned con artist, who has clearly premeditated his plan to extract money from the Countess and evade military service, yet, later, he falls apart emotionally because he now sees himself as a coward and deserter. People capable of carefully planning disreputable acts don't suddenly feel guilty when those acts are successfully accomplished. People feel guilty about momentary lapses that violate their own values, but not about one more successful con after a long life of cons. Furthermore, a good con keeps conning and doesn't incite a past victim by crowing over the con. Neither Franz nor Livia is a believable character and their relationship is therefore not credible either.

The characters whose stories I would most like to have learned about in this film are relegated to minor roles. I would have enjoyed learning more about the Marquis Roberto Ussoni and his fellow patriots, fighting to liberate Venice and unify Italy. That was the real story in the period depicted, not the idiotic mutual betrayal between two worthless individuals. I very much like the context in which the story was set, just not the story.

To end on a positive note, the performances were all quite solid and Valli's performance was spectacular. She's a lovely woman with an impressive range of emotion and facial expressiveness. Some of Valli's other roles were in We the Living (1942), The Third Man (1949), and Suspiria (1976). Farley Granger also gives a fine performance in a flawed role. Most of his best work preceded this film. He had appearances in Rope (1948), They Live by Night (1949), Strangers on a Train (1951), O, Henry's Full House (1952), and Hans Christian Anderson (1952).

Bottom-Line: This is a great period film with a very unsatisfying plot. You can judge accordingly. If you enjoy period pieces so much that the excellent production values can carry the experience for you even in the absence of a compelling story, then keep this film in mind. If a credible story and some kind of comprehensible moral is important to you, stay away. I'm giving the film three-stars as compromise between an abysmal story and an excellent production. Senso is in Italian with English subtitles and has a running time of 117 minutes.

Recommended:
No

Video Occasion: Good for a Rainy Day
Suitability For Children: Suitable for Children Age 13 and Older